The History of Bottled Water: From Mineral Springs to a Global Beverage Industry

Open the refrigerator and there it is — a plastic bottle of water waiting in the door. You grab a 500mL bottle at the convenience store checkout without a second thought. It has become so completely ordinary, yet just a few decades ago, most people would have found the very idea of paying for water strange. So when exactly did we start buying water, and why?

The history of bottled water is not simply the story of putting water in a bottle. It is the intertwined story of humanity’s desire for health, the shadow cast by urbanization during the Industrial Revolution, the genius evolution of marketing, and our modern environmental crisis. So how did the mineral water that ancient Roman aristocrats had transported from distant lands become today’s $350 billion global industry consuming 350 billion liters annually?^[1]

Before the Commodification of Water: Mineral Water Was Medicine

The Miracle Springs of the Ancient World

The seeds of the bottled water industry were planted the moment humanity began to believe that certain spring waters were good for one’s health. Ancient Greeks believed that particular springs held sacred healing powers, and the Roman Empire left written records of transporting mineral water. Roman-era records describe mineral waters such as Apollinaris from Germany being transported throughout the empire in clay vessels.^[2]

In medieval Europe, there was a strong religious tradition of believing that water flowing from Holy Wells performed miracles. Pilgrims walking long distances to reach a “healing spring” was a common sight. This tradition of belief became the cultural soil from which the later craze for mineral water would grow.

The World’s First Bottled Water: Holy Well, England (1622)

The earliest recorded systematic bottling of water took place in 1622 at the Holy Well in Malvern, England.^[3] Monks from a nearby monastery began filling bottles with the spring water and delivering it to those who could not travel, which gradually developed into commercial sales. By 1850, the British beverage company Schweppes had opened a large bottling plant in Malvern, and at the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, Malvern water made its formal public debut.^[3]

Around the same time, mineral waters from across Europe — Spa in Belgium, Vichy in France, Apollinaris in Germany — began to be commercially bottled.^[2] The word “spa” has since become a common noun meaning a hot spring or wellness facility, a testament to how famous the mineral waters of the Belgian town of Spa once were.

Evian and Perrier: The Birth of Legends

The Evian Myth: The Spring That Cured Kidney Stones (1789)

The story of Evian — today one of the world’s most famous bottled water brands — begins in 1789 near Lake Geneva in the French Alps, in the town of Évian-les-Bains. Word spread that the Marquis de Lessert, a nobleman from Auvergne suffering from kidney stones, drank from the local spring known as “Sainte-Catherine” and experienced a remarkable improvement in his condition.^[4]

In 1790, the Marquis de Lessert publicly promoted the spring’s benefits, and people began flocking to the town. In 1826, a Geneva-based businessman named François Fauconnet established the first hydropathic establishment in Évian, and from 1829 onwards, Evian water was sold commercially in clay jars.^[4] In 1869, the Compagnie Fermière des Eaux Minérales d’Evian was founded.

Perrier’s Unique Origin: A Bottle Inspired by Indian Clubs (1863)

The history of Perrier, the king of sparkling water, begins in 1863 in Vergèze in the Gard department of France. That year, Napoleon III granted official recognition to the region’s natural carbonated mineral spring as a resource of national interest.^[5]

In 1898, a local physician named Louis Perrier purchased the spring and began operating it commercially. Then in 1903, St. John Harmsworth, a British aristocrat who had come to France to recover his health, was captivated by the spring and purchased the rights from Louis Perrier.^[5] Harmsworth named the spring “Source Perrier” and began selling the water in distinctive green bottles. The famous bottle shape, it is said, was inspired by the Indian clubs he used during his health recovery.^[5]

19th-Century America: Saratoga Springs and the Rise of the Bottled Water Industry

The European craze for mineral water crossed the Atlantic and took hold in the United States. The first commercially bottled water in the US was sold in 1767 at Jackson’s Spa in Boston,^[6] and in 1822, water from Congress Spring in Saratoga Springs, New York, began to be bottled and sold.^[7]

Saratoga Springs grew into America’s premier mineral water destination by the mid-19th century. Around 1850, one bottling operation in Saratoga Springs reportedly produced more than 7 million bottles of water per year.^[7] As it became a fashionable resort city frequented by New York’s upper class and European aristocracy, Saratoga water became the most popular bottled water in the United States.

Early 20th Century: The Rise of Tap Water and the Decline of Bottled Water

Cholera and the Paradox of Public Health

Throughout the 19th century, cities in Europe and North America were ravaged by waterborne diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever. Paradoxically, this situation aided the growth of bottled water. As fear of unsafe urban water spread, mineral water was positioned as a healthier alternative.

However, the situation reversed as the 20th century arrived. From the early 1900s, many cities began chlorinating their tap water, and waterborne diseases rapidly declined. As clean tap water became widely available, demand for mineral water consumed for therapeutic purposes fell sharply. Bottled water sales in the United States dropped significantly during this period, and the industry entered a temporary slump.^[6]

The Commercial Comeback: Perrier and the Shift to a Mass Consumer Product

The bottled water industry began recovering in the mid-20th century, driven by two key factors: the introduction of plastic bottles and a revolution in marketing.

Perrier aggressively targeted the American market beginning in 1977. The brand appealed to affluent, health-conscious American consumers by presenting the purchase of bottled water as a symbol of sophisticated, European-style living. An advertising campaign featuring tennis star Björn Borg positioned Perrier as a sporty yet luxurious beverage.^[5]

In the late 1970s, Evian’s switch from glass to PET (polyethylene terephthalate) plastic bottles was an innovation that completely transformed the bottled water industry.^[4] Lighter, unbreakable, and far easier to mass-produce, plastic bottles made bottled water dramatically cheaper and more convenient to consume.

The 1990s: The Bottled Water Revolution

Coca-Cola and Pepsi’s Water Wars

In the mid-1990s, the bottled water market reached a pivotal turning point as major beverage corporations entered the arena in force. PepsiCo launched Aquafina in 1994 in Wichita, Kansas, and expanded it nationally in 1997.^[8]

Coca-Cola initially approached the bottled water market cautiously, but joined the competition in earnest with the launch of Dasani in 1999.^[8] When it later came to light that both brands were selling reverse-osmosis-purified municipal tap water, controversy followed. Consumers who had believed they were drinking “pure spring water from the mountains” discovered the product was, in fact, purified tap water.^[8]

Roughly 45% of bottled water sold in the United States is purified tap water.^[8] Despite this, both brands achieved enormous success — a clear illustration of how heavily the bottled water industry depends on marketing power and consumer perception.

The Fiji Water Myth: Water That Flew 1,500 Kilometers

Another fascinating phenomenon of the 1990s was the explosive growth of the premium bottled water market. Fiji Water, sourced from volcanic rock in Fiji, launched in 1996 and went on to dominate upscale restaurants and hotels worldwide with its marketing claim of being “the world’s most untouched water.”

Bottled water had become more than a beverage — it was a consumer product that signaled lifestyle and social status. From this point on, water bottle design began to evolve like a fashion accessory, and collaborations with luxury brands and limited-edition water bottles began to appear.

Korea’s Bottled Water History: A Drama of Prohibition and Liberation

The 1988 Seoul Olympics and Water’s First Appearance

Korea’s bottled water history is unique. While developed countries freely consumed bottled water, selling it in Korea was illegal. Regulations concerning bottled water sales had existed since 1975, but the government refused to permit commercial sales, concerned about protecting tap water policy and social conflict arising from income inequality.^[9]

Bottled water made its first official appearance in Korea at the 1988 Seoul Olympics. The government temporarily permitted its sale out of concern that foreign athletes and tourists might question the safety of Korean tap water. However, once the Olympics ended, the ban was reinstated.^[9]

The Nakdong River Phenol Spill: The Catalyst for Legalization

In March 1991, a defining event in Korea’s bottled water history occurred. Approximately 30 tons of phenol leaked into the Nakdong River from a wastewater treatment process at the Doosan Electronics factory in Gumi, North Gyeongsang Province.^[9] The Nakdong River was the source of drinking water for millions of people in Busan and South Gyeongsang Province. The shocking incident drove residents of Daegu and Busan to extreme fear and distrust of their tap water.

Despite the illegality, black market sales of bottled water exploded, and “buying water to drink” was no longer seen as a luxury but as a matter of survival. As public demand grew, the issue was taken to the Constitutional Court, and on March 16, 1994, the court ruled that the ban on bottled water sales violated the right to pursue happiness.^[9]

The Drinking Water Management Act and the Opening of the Market (1995)

Following the Constitutional Court ruling, the Drinking Water Management Act was enacted in 1995, officially permitting the commercial sale of bottled water in Korea.^[9] With the market open, companies rushed in. Dozens of brands — Jeju Samdasoo, Baeksan Water, Icis, Evian, and others — competed to dominate the market.

Jeju Samdasoo: Korea’s Undisputed Bottled Water King

Launched in March 1998, Jeju Samdasoo made an immediate splash. Its identity as water filtered through the volcanic rock strata of Hallasan on Jeju Island, combined with the credibility of being operated by a public institution — the Jeju Special Self-Governing Province Development Corporation — strongly resonated with consumers.^[10] Within six months of its launch, Samdasoo had claimed the top market share, a position it has held unchallenged for over two decades.

As of Q1 2025, Jeju Samdasoo holds approximately 40.4% of the domestic bottled water market — four out of every ten bottles consumed in Korea is Samdasoo.^[10] Korea’s bottled water market has grown steadily from approximately 465 billion won (around $340 million USD) in 2012 to a market now far exceeding 1 trillion won.^[9]

The Genius of Bottled Water Marketing: How Do You Sell Water?

The Battle for Perception: Purity, Health, and Convenience

The marketing power behind the bottled water industry is, above all, what enabled its extraordinarily rapid growth. Building on a long tradition of associating mineral water with “health and healing,” modern bottled water companies layered on a powerful narrative of “purity,” “nature,” and “healthy lifestyle.”

The strategy of foregrounding images of mountains or glaciers proved especially effective. Evian’s Alpine imagery, Fiji Water’s tropical volcanic rock imagery, and Jeju Samdasoo’s Hallasan imagery are all products of the same strategy. What consumers are buying is not the water itself, but the “pure nature” they believe is contained within it.

The “Tap Water Fear” Marketing

From the 1990s onwards, bottled water companies effectively exploited consumer anxiety about the safety of tap water. Media reports about potential tap water contaminants — lead pipes, pesticides, chlorine — contributed to rising bottled water sales. Paradoxically, it later became known in the United States that while tap water is subject to dual regulation by both the FDA and EPA, bottled water is regulated only by the FDA — a revelation that prompted some to reassess their assumptions about bottled water’s superiority.^[6]

Environmental Crisis: The Dark Side of the Bottled Water Industry

The Catastrophe of Plastic Waste

As of 2021, global bottled water sales reached 350 billion liters. Approximately 600 billion plastic bottles were produced annually to hold this water, and the vast majority ended up in landfills or the ocean without being recycled.^[11] A plastic bottle takes up to 1,000 years to fully decompose.

Plastic bottles that end up in the ocean are broken down into microplastics by waves and ultraviolet light. More alarming still is the fact that these microplastics are finding their way back into the bottled water we drink. According to research published in 2024 by a team at Columbia University, one liter of bottled water contains an average of approximately 240,000 nanoplastic particles.^[12] Another study found that the concentration of nanoplastics in bottled water is significantly higher than in tap water. Paradoxically, a person who drinks bottled water out of concern about plastic pollution may actually be consuming more plastic than if they drank tap water.

Groundwater Depletion and Community Conflict

The large-scale extraction of groundwater by major bottled water companies is also a serious problem affecting local water resources. Conflicts over groundwater extraction rights by large bottled water corporations persist across multiple regions in the United States and Europe. Local residents criticize these companies for monopolizing public water resources at low prices while depleting local water systems.^[11]

According to research by the United Nations University (UNU), the growth of the bottled water industry is having a counterproductive effect, actually hampering investment in safe tap water supply infrastructure in developing countries. Because those who can afford to buy bottled water do not raise their voices to demand improvements in public water infrastructure, progress stalls.^[11]

Carbon Footprint

The carbon emissions generated across the entire process of manufacturing plastic bottles, transporting water, and refrigerating it are not to be dismissed. Compared to drinking tap water from the faucet, research suggests that the carbon footprint of drinking bottled water can be hundreds to thousands of times greater.^[11]

San Pellegrino and the World of Premium Bottled Water

Italy’s Pride (1899)

San Pellegrino (S.Pellegrino) was established in 1899 in the San Pellegrino Terme area of Bergamo, near Milan, Italy.^[13] This water, formed as glacial melt from the Alps slowly percolates through geological strata absorbing minerals, had already been renowned locally since the 15th century. It is said that Leonardo da Vinci himself visited the spring.

In 1997, San Pellegrino was acquired by Perrier Vittel, a subsidiary of Nestlé, and has since become an indispensable icon on the tables of upscale restaurants and hotels worldwide.^[13] San Pellegrino and Evian have established themselves as the standard-bearers of the sparkling and still premium water markets respectively.

Perrier’s Crisis and Recovery

In 1990, Perrier faced an unprecedented crisis. The carcinogen benzene was detected in products from an American production facility, triggering a worldwide recall of 160 million bottles.^[5] The incident cost Perrier significant market share and trust. The following year, in 1991, Nestlé acquired Perrier,^[5] and after a careful brand rebuilding effort, Perrier returned as a dominant force in the sparkling water market.

Present and Future: The Challenge of Sustainability

Aluminum Cans, Glass Bottles, and Water Filters

Various alternatives have emerged in response to the environmental problems facing the bottled water industry. Water sold in easily recyclable aluminum cans, a revival of traditional glass bottle water, and personal containers with built-in filtration systems are all gaining traction. Some companies are introducing bottles made from biodegradable plastics or plant-based materials.

Recently in Korea, “label-free” products — those without or with reduced plastic labels — have garnered a strong positive response. Jeju Samdasoo launched an “Eco” version with the plastic label removed,^[10] and the movement has since spread to other brands. It is a strategy that combines a practical advantage — making recycling sorting easier — with an appeal to environmentally conscious consumers.

The Rediscovery of Tap Water Infrastructure

Ironically, the more the environmental problems of bottled water are highlighted, the more the value of tap water is being re-examined. In some European countries, such as Scandinavia and the Netherlands, there is a strong culture of taking pride in the quality of domestic tap water. Encouraging the culture of drinking water from public fountains and the practice of restaurants providing free tap water are both becoming more widespread.

In Korea as well, the Ministry of Environment runs campaigns such as “Arisu” (the brand name for Seoul’s tap water) to encourage tap water consumption. There is a growing consensus that raising the tap water consumption rate is the most effective way to reduce bottled water use and improve the environment.

The Future of the Global Bottled Water Market

The global bottled water market is projected to grow to more than $500 billion by 2030.^[11] Growth is expected to be particularly pronounced in developing countries in Asia and Africa, where safe tap water supply remains unreliable.

At the same time, rising consumer environmental awareness and increasingly strict government regulations on plastics are pressuring the bottled water industry to change. France is pursuing a ban on the sale of single-use plastic water bottles in public institutions by 2030, and the European Union is continuously raising the mandatory recycling rate for water bottle containers.

Conclusion: An Industry Built on Fear and Aspiration

One consistent driving force runs through the entire history of bottled water: distrust of tap water. The fear of cholera in the 19th century gave rise to the mineral water craze; the 1991 Nakdong River phenol spill opened the Korean bottled water market; and 1990s media coverage of lead pipes and pesticide contamination propelled the bottled water businesses of Coca-Cola and Pepsi to success. Every time tap water policy failed — or appeared to fail consumers — the bottled water industry grew to fill the void.

Yet an important reversal has taken place within this dynamic. As Columbia University researchers have now demonstrated, a single liter of bottled water in a plastic bottle contains nanoplastics at a concentration significantly higher than that found in tap water.^[12] The very product chosen to avoid tap water contamination has itself become a new form of contamination. Bottled water, which spent 400 years positioning itself as the safe alternative to tap water, now occupies the same position as the problem it once claimed to solve.

More striking still is the structural way in which the growth of the bottled water industry deepens this problem. As the United Nations University has observed, when consumers with the economic means to buy bottled water withdraw from the political pressure to improve public water infrastructure, the social momentum behind safe tap water weakens.^[11] The more bottled water is consumed, the more the cycle of underinvestment in public water infrastructure becomes structurally entrenched.

The cases of Aquafina and Dasani illustrate the industry’s core operating logic most clearly. Consumers believed they were buying pure spring water from the mountains; they were, in fact, paying a premium for purified tap water. Both brands nonetheless achieved enormous market success. The price of a bottle of water reflects not the intrinsic value of the water itself, but the value of the narrative and trust built around it. This suggests that bottled water should be read not merely as a beverage, but as a trust indicator for public water management. When bottled water consumption surges in any given society, it may well be a signal that public distrust in that society’s management of its water commons is rising alongside it.