History of Cheese

In 2012, a team led by chemist Richard Evershed at the University of Bristol detected milk fat residues on 7,200-year-old pottery fragments excavated from the Kujawy region of Poland. These shards, riddled with small holes, had long been enigmatic artifacts of unknown purpose, but fatty acid isotope analysis revealed them to be cheese-making strainers. This meant that Neolithic farmers already possessed the technology to separate curds from whey. The intriguing part is that most Europeans at the time were lactose intolerant. Cheesemaking was not simply a culinary invention — it was a survival technique for transforming indigestible milk into an edible form.

An Accidental Discovery: Ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt (8000–3000 BCE)

The exact origins of cheese are unknown, but archaeological evidence suggests it began around 6000–8000 BCE in the Mesopotamian region.^[1] Holed pottery believed to have been used for cheesemaking has been excavated in Kujawy, Poland, and along the Dalmatian coast of Croatia, confirmed to be over 7,000 years old.^[2]

The earliest written record appears in Sumerian cuneiform texts around 3000 BCE.^[2] Clay tablets discovered in the ancient Mesopotamian city of Ur contain accounting records of cheese and butter storage.^[3] The ancient Sumerians were among the first civilizations to domesticate dairy animals such as goats and sheep, and through trial and error, discovered the process of coagulating milk to make cheese.^[3]

Archaeological evidence of cheesemaking in Egypt dates back about 5,000 years.^[4] In 2018, archaeologists from Cairo University and the University of Catania reported the oldest cheese ever found in Egypt—“solid cheese residue” from around 1300–1200 BCE.^[4] Egyptian murals depicting the process of making cheese or butter survive to this day, demonstrating that dairy farming was a routine activity in ancient Egypt.^[5]

The Legend of Cheese Invention

The most plausible legend of how cheese was discovered involves an accidental discovery by nomads. Ancient nomads carried milk in leather pouches made from the stomachs of sheep or goats.^[5] These animal stomachs contained a natural enzyme called rennet, which reacted with the milk, causing it to coagulate and form cheese.^[5] Hot weather and the jostling motion of horses or camels likely accelerated this process. When the nomads opened their pouches and found solidified curd and whey instead of milk, they discovered it was edible and preserved well.

The Greco-Roman Era: Development of Cheese Culture (800 BCE–476 CE)

By the ancient Greek and Roman era, cheese had become more than a preservation food—it became an important part of culinary culture. The ancient Greeks used cheese as an offering to the gods and included it in athletes’ diets.^[6] Homer’s epic “Odyssey” features a scene where the Cyclops Polyphemus makes cheese from sheep’s milk.^[6]

In the Roman Empire, cheesemaking techniques advanced significantly. Romans produced various types of cheese, and wealthy Roman homes had special kitchens for cheese aging.^[6] The Roman army included cheese in its rations as a portable protein source during marches.^[6] The Roman agricultural writer Columella (4–70 CE) detailed cheesemaking methods in his work “De Re Rustica” (On Agriculture).^[6]

As the Roman Empire expanded, cheesemaking techniques spread throughout Europe. Romans introduced dairy technology to conquered lands, and diverse cheeses adapted to each region’s climate and environment began to emerge.

Medieval Europe: The Role of Monasteries and the Birth of Regional Cheeses (5th–15th Century)

When the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 CE, many cheesemaking techniques developed during Roman times were at risk of disappearing. However, monasteries, isolated from the secular world, played a role in preserving and advancing this valuable knowledge.^[5]

Monasteries, Guardians of Cheese Technology

Medieval monasteries were self-sufficient communities that possessed, by contemporary standards, considerable advanced technologies.^[5] Cheesemaking was one of the monastery’s important skills, along with winemaking and brewing.^[5] Monks produced cheese as a protein source during fasting periods when meat was forbidden, and in this process, they systematically recorded and improved manufacturing techniques.

Cheeses developed or refined in monasteries include France’s Munster, Maroilles, and Pont-l’Évêque, and Italy’s Gorgonzola.^[6] These cheeses maintain high prestige to this day.

The Spread of Farmhouse Cheese

Starting in the 12th century, farmhouses also began making cheese.^[5] As techniques learned from monasteries were passed down to peasants, unique local cheeses began to emerge in each province and region.^[5] In farmhouses, women primarily handled cheesemaking, with know-how and techniques passed from mother to daughter.^[5]

One famous cheese born in this period is France’s Camembert. According to legend, during the French Revolution, a monk who fled to the Normandy region taught Marie Harel, a farmhouse woman who hid him, the secret of making Brie cheese as a token of gratitude, which became the origin of Camembert cheese.^[5]

Modernization and Industrial Revolution: The Era of Mass Production (19th–20th Century)

Entering the 19th and 20th centuries, cheesemaking transitioned from farmhouse handcraft to factory mass production. This change was particularly pronounced in the United States.

The First Cheese Factory (1851)

In 1851, the first cheese factory was established in New York State.^[7] This factory could produce in one day what individual farms produced over several months.^[7] This brought revolutionary change to the cheese industry.

Technological Innovations

Technological innovations of the Industrial Revolution era fundamentally transformed the cheesemaking process.^[7]

Steam-powered stirrers: Steam-powered stirrers replaced the process of stirring by hand.^[7]

Mechanical presses: Mechanical presses enabled the production of cheese with uniform texture and density.^[7]

Temperature-controlled aging rooms: Temperature-controlled aging rooms were introduced to ensure consistent quality regardless of weather.^[7]

Mass production of rennet: In the 1860s, mass production of rennet began, and by the turn of the century, scientists began producing pure microbial cultures.^[7]

Introduction of Pasteurization (1860s)

Louis Pasteur’s research on pasteurization in the 1860s revolutionized the dairy industry.^[7] Pasteurization, a method that removes harmful bacteria while preserving beneficial bacteria, made cheese safer and more consistent.^[7] This greatly reduced the risk of food poisoning that had plagued dairy products for centuries.^[8]

With the introduction of pasteurization, Cheddar cheese began dominating the industry from the mid-19th century as demand surged in Britain and the United States.^[7] Consequently, farmhouse cheese production plummeted while factory cheese production soared.^[7]

Light and Shadow of Industrialization

While industrialization made cheese affordable and safe for the masses, it also reduced cheese diversity.^[7] Factory-produced cheese pursued uniform quality and standardized taste, putting the unique farmhouse cheeses developed over hundreds of years in each region at risk of disappearing.

Modern Cheese: Revival and Diversification (Late 20th Century–Present)

An interesting change occurred in the late 20th century. In reaction against standardized industrial cheese, a movement to seek traditional artisan cheese spread throughout Europe and North America.

The Revival of Artisan Cheese

The “cheese renaissance” that began in the 1970s refers to small-scale cheesemakers producing high-quality cheese using traditional methods.^[9] European countries such as France, Italy, and Switzerland began protecting traditional cheeses through systems like Protected Designation of Origin (PDO).^[9]

Cheeses like France’s Roquefort, Italy’s Parmigiano Reggiano, and Switzerland’s Gruyère can only use their names if they strictly adhere to their place of origin and traditional manufacturing methods.^[9]

Global Cheese Culture

Today, over 1,800 varieties of cheese exist worldwide, each developing uniquely in different cultures.^[6]

Europe: France produces about 400 varieties of cheese and is called the “land of cheese.” Former French President Charles de Gaulle famously said, “How can you govern a country which has 246 varieties of cheese?”^[6] Italy is the home of world-beloved cheeses such as Mozzarella, Ricotta, and Gorgonzola.

United States: In the early 20th century, the cheese industry developed centered in Wisconsin and California, and recently the artisan cheese movement has been active in Vermont, Oregon, and other states.^[9]

Asia: Even in Asian regions where dairy culture was traditionally weak, cheese consumption is surging. Japan has developed a processed cheese market, and China has seen rapid growth in cheese consumption since the 2000s with the influx of Western food culture.^[10]

Korea: In Korea, cheese consumption began after the 1960s as Western food culture entered.^[11] Korean-style cheese dishes such as pizza, cheese donkatsu, and cheese hot dogs have become popular, and recently, “cheese waterfall” dishes using mozzarella cheese have gained enormous popularity through social media.

The Science of Modern Cheesemaking

Modern cheesemaking is a field where tradition and science combine. Microbiologists are studying bacterial strains that determine cheese flavor and texture, while food scientists are developing methods to optimize the aging process.^[9]

Additionally, cheesemaking that considers the environment and animal welfare has become an important trend. Cheese made from organic milk, grass-fed cheese, and recently plant-based vegan cheese have emerged to form new markets.^[9]

Conclusion: A 7,000-Year Journey

Cheese, accidentally born in the leather pouches of ancient nomads, has become one of the world’s most beloved foods through a journey spanning over 7,000 years. From the first written records on Mesopotamian clay tablets, to manufacturing techniques secretly passed down in medieval monasteries, to mass production brought by the Industrial Revolution, to the modern artisan cheese renaissance, the history of cheese has accompanied the development of human civilization.

In each era and each region, cheese has evolved uniquely to match its culture and environment. France’s rich cheese tradition, Italy’s Parmigiano Reggiano, Switzerland’s Gruyère, and Britain’s Cheddar all contain hundreds of years of history and regional identity. At the same time, modern science and technology have made cheese safer and more consistent, allowing diverse cheeses to be enjoyed anywhere in the world.

What is particularly striking is that a single recurring tension runs throughout the entire history of cheese: the repeated clash between standardization and diversity. The Roman Empire transplanted uniform dairy techniques into conquered territories; 19th-century industrialization compressed centuries of regional cheese traditions to fit factory specifications. Yet each time, a counter-reaction emerged. Medieval monasteries preserved knowledge against the loss of Roman techniques, and the late 20th-century artisan cheese movement arose as a cultural resistance to industrial standardization. The fact that France and Italy came to protect specific cheese names and production regions by law — through the PDO system — can be understood in this very context.

This pattern suggests that cheese has functioned not merely as a source of nutrition, but as a material expression of regional identity. Just as Roquefort cannot be separated from the limestone caves of the Aveyron, and Parmigiano Reggiano cannot be separated from the pastures of Emilia-Romagna, cheese is a concentrated record of the land where it was made, the climate, and the choices of the people who lived there. The accident that began in a nomad’s leather pouch seven thousand years ago ultimately led to a tenacious human will — one that would go so far as to create laws and institutions to protect a particular place, a particular method, and a particular flavor.