The Origin of Kimchi: From Ancient Preserving to Global Fermented Staple

In the 13th century, the Goryeo poet Yi Gyubo wrote: “Radish salted and preserved can last all summer; cabbage soaked in brine endures nine months of winter.”^[1] What he described was not the red kimchi we know today. It was a salt-brined vegetable — no chili peppers at all. The red pepper now considered the defining ingredient of kimchi didn’t arrive on the Korean Peninsula until roughly 350 years after his poem was written.

This single fact raises the most important question in kimchi’s history. How old is kimchi, and when did “kimchi” start referring to what we eat today?

Salt and Winter: The Origins of Fermented Vegetables

The practice of salt-preserving vegetables on the Korean Peninsula dates back at least to the Three Kingdoms period (57 BCE–668 CE). The chronicle Samguk Sagi, compiled in 1145, contains records of earthenware jars used to ferment pickled vegetables at that time.^[2] The Chinese poetry anthology Shijing also features the word jeoh (菹), meaning pickled vegetables, and some scholars argue these records show that a similar fermented vegetable culture existed across East Asia.^[3]

But why fermentation in the first place? The climate of the Korean Peninsula provides the answer. Winters were long and harsh, and fresh vegetables were nearly impossible to obtain before spring. Salt draws moisture out of vegetables and prevents harmful bacteria from multiplying, while creating an environment where beneficial lactic acid bacteria can thrive. These bacteria ferment the vegetables, producing lactic acid, which in turn acts as a preservative for long-term storage. The earliest forms of kimchi were the empirical discovery of this very principle.

The main ingredients of early pickled vegetables found in historical records were not napa cabbage but radishes. Cucumbers, eggplants, chives, and bamboo shoots were also commonly used.^[4] Preparation methods involved salting the vegetables or mixing them with fermented soybean paste, and a single ingredient might be fermented in several different ways. This is the basis for claims that kimchi’s history stretches well beyond 2,000 years — though whether that makes it the same food we eat today is a separate question entirely.

The Goryeo Period: Kimchi in Written Records

During the Goryeo period (918–1392), written records of kimchi become considerably richer. Yi Gyubo’s poetry (1168–1241) stands among the most concrete primary sources on kimchi culture of that era.^[1] His poems vividly describe the seasonal practice of pickling radishes and cabbage with salt and fermented soybean paste in preparation for winter.

The kimchi of this period featured ingredients quite different from today’s. Turmeric, black sesame, garlic, and ginger were all used in the pickling process, and alcohol or fermented soybean products helped drive fermentation.^[4] Interestingly, records from this period also mention cabbage (松). Some scholars have challenged the conventional view that napa cabbage arrived from China only in the late 19th century, suggesting that cabbage-like varieties were cultivated much earlier.^[3]

It is also worth noting that the concept of kimjang — the seasonal winter preparation of kimchi — already existed in the Goryeo period. The practice of collectively pickling large quantities of vegetables in autumn to ensure a winter’s supply was developing into more than a food-preservation technique; it was becoming a communal cultural ritual.

The Arrival of Chili Peppers: Why Kimchi Turned Red

In 1592, the Imjin War began. Japanese forces under Toyotomi Hideyoshi invaded the Korean Peninsula, and the war lasted seven years. This conflict proved decisive in changing the history of Korean food. It was through the Japanese army that chili peppers — native to the Americas — were introduced to the Korean Peninsula.^[5]

Chili peppers originated in Central America. Spanish explorers brought them to Europe in the 16th century, and from there Portuguese trading vessels spread them across East Asia. Chili peppers reached Japan in the mid-16th century, and crossed into the Korean Peninsula during the Imjin War.^[5]

Early records suggest that chili peppers were initially regarded not as food but as medicine or even poison. Some historians recount the story that Japanese forces attempted to poison Koreans with chili peppers during the war.^[5] The credibility of that account is uncertain, but it seems clear that chili peppers were first met with suspicion before gradually being accepted as a culinary ingredient.

Chili peppers began to be used in earnest in kimchi sometime between the late 17th and 18th centuries.^[5] Joseon-era cookbooks from this period started featuring chili peppers as a seasoning, and they gradually made their way into kimchi as well. The reason wasn’t taste alone. Chili peppers have strong antimicrobial properties that help regulate fermentation and inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria. They also helped mask the fishy smell of the salted fermented seafood used in kimchi.

From this perspective, the red, spicy napa cabbage kimchi we picture when we think “kimchi” today is a relatively recent invention. Recipes closely resembling the current form of whole-leaf napa cabbage kimchi don’t appear in written records until the early 19th century.^[4] The claim that kimchi has a 2,000-year history, and the claim that the kimchi we eat today is only 200 to 300 years old, are both true. Which one you emphasize simply changes the story you’re telling.

The Rise of Napa Cabbage: A Supporting Actor Takes Center Stage

Napa cabbage — which today accounts for over 70% of the kimchi market — became the dominant kimchi ingredient only in the late 19th century. The late Joseon cookbook Siui Jeongseo contains a recipe for whole-leaf napa cabbage kimchi, recognized as the earliest form closest to modern baechu kimchi.^[4]

So when did napa cabbage arrive on the Korean Peninsula? The answer remains unsettled. The traditional view holds that the current variety arrived from China in the late 19th century, but as mentioned earlier, Chinese characters referring to cabbage appear in texts from the 13th to 17th centuries.^[3] Whether those refer to the exact same variety as today’s napa cabbage is unclear.

Before napa cabbage took its dominant role, the most important kimchi ingredient was the radish. Kkakdugi (diced radish kimchi), dongchimi (radish in brine), and chonggak kimchi (small radish kimchi) all preserve traces of this earlier era. It is why, among the more than 200 recorded types of kimchi, radish-based varieties still make up a significant share.^[6]

The Science of Onggi: How a Traditional Jar Creates the Optimal Environment

On the Korean Peninsula, kimchi was long fermented in traditional earthenware jars called onggi (甕器), buried underground. That this practice had a scientific basis — not merely cultural tradition — was formally demonstrated in 2023. A study published in the Journal of The Royal Society Interface found that the microscopic pores of onggi slowly release carbon dioxide produced during fermentation, creating a low-CO₂ environment preferred by lactic acid bacteria.^[7]

Compared to glass or plastic containers, kimchi fermented in onggi showed faster lactic acid bacterial growth and developed a more complex final flavor. The analysis found that onggi creates an environment similar to loose soil — and lactic acid bacteria are microorganisms that naturally proliferate in loose earth.^[7]

This discovery is more than a curiosity. It represents a case in which traditional technology developed through centuries of experience was explained by modern science for the first time. Ancestors didn’t know why onggi worked so well — they had simply found, through empirical experience, the most effective method of fermentation.

Kimjang: A Seasonal Ritual That Bound Communities Together

Kimjang — the collective winter preparation of kimchi — is not simply a food production activity. As autumn ends, neighbors and family gather to salt and season dozens or even hundreds of heads of cabbage together. Practiced throughout the Joseon dynasty and into the modern era, this ritual represents far more than food preservation.

What defines kimjang is reciprocity. Households would take turns helping one another with their kimjang, and when the work was done, freshly made kimchi and boiled pork would be shared in a communal feast. Even in today’s rapidly urbanized society, the practice persists — apartment residents gathering together to make kimchi.

UNESCO designated kimjang as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2013.^[8] The registered title was “Kimjang: Making and Sharing Kimchi in the Republic of Korea,” and one of the reasons for its inscription was that the practice strengthens solidarity among community members and helps reduce social inequality.^[8] It is a rare instance of an international body formally recognizing the communal function of a food culture.

Regional Variations: 200 Faces Shaped by Climate and Ingredients

Over 200 distinct types of kimchi have been documented. This diversity reflects the climatic differences across the Korean Peninsula and the varying local ingredients available in each region.^[6]

In the northern regions — those closest to present-day North Korea — long winters and low temperatures mean that fermentation proceeds well even with less salt and fewer spices. Kimchi from these areas tends to be relatively mild and less pungent. A prime example is bossam kimchi from the Gaeseong region: a refined kimchi made by wrapping oysters, chestnuts, pears, and other ingredients inside cabbage leaves.

In the southern regions, where temperatures are higher and fermentation faster, more salt and chili pepper are used to prevent spoilage, and coastal areas make generous use of fermented seafood. This is why Jeolla Province kimchi is notably rich and deeply flavored. While Gyeongsang Province kimchi typically uses anchovy sauce or sand lance sauce, Jeolla Province kimchi favors cutlassfish or croaker sauce.

Jeju Island developed its own distinct kimchi tradition, separate from the mainland. There are many unique varieties that incorporate local seafood, and some areas make white kimchi with little or no chili pepper at all.

Fermentation and Health: Science Confirms Traditional Wisdom

The central agents of kimchi fermentation are lactic acid bacteria. During the fermentation process, various strains — including Leuconostoc, Weissella, and Lactobacillus — proliferate in sequence, while harmful bacteria are suppressed by salt and the lactic acid produced through fermentation.^[9] One gram of finished kimchi contains approximately one billion lactic acid bacteria.

Research into the health effects of these bacteria accelerated rapidly from the 2000s onward. A 2014 study published in the Journal of Medicinal Food compiled evidence that kimchi consumption helps reduce inflammation, lower cholesterol, regulate blood sugar, and strengthen the immune system.^[10] In the 2020s, animal and clinical studies have continued to focus particularly on kimchi’s potential anti-obesity effects.^[9]

However, the scientific community is still debating whether kimchi can officially hold the status of a probiotic food. A 2023 review published in Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition noted that most studies on kimchi’s health benefits are small in scale or limited to animal experiments, and that more clinical research in humans is needed before direct effects can be stated definitively.^[11] The work of closing the gap between traditional knowledge and modern science is not yet finished.

The “Kimchi Dispute”: When Culture and Food Collide

In November 2020, paocai — a pickled vegetable dish from Sichuan, China — received international standard certification from the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). When some Chinese state media outlets reported this as China having taken the lead in setting “international standards for the kimchi industry,” a strong backlash erupted in South Korea.^[12]

But the facts told a different story. The ISO document itself explicitly stated that “this standard does not apply to kimchi,” and the international standard for kimchi had already been established separately by the Codex Alimentarius Commission of the United Nations in 2001.^[12] While both paocai and kimchi are fermented vegetable foods, they differ substantially in preparation methods, ingredients, and fermentation principles. Paocai is typically fermented once in salted water, whereas kimchi undergoes a two-stage fermentation using a complex seasoning blend including chili peppers and fermented seafood.

This dispute shows that kimchi’s status as a distinctly Korean food is clearly recognized internationally. Each country has its own fermented vegetable tradition — Japan’s tsukemono, China’s paocai, Germany’s sauerkraut — but kimchi is set apart from all of them in its ingredients, preparation method, and fermentation principles. It is a Korean food in every defining sense.

Kimchi Goes Global: Korea’s Culinary Soft Power

In the first half of 2024, South Korea’s kimchi exports reached a record high for any first half of the year. Some 23,900 tonnes were exported, worth approximately 83.8 million US dollars.^[13] This represents more than double the 11,500 tonnes exported in the first half of 2015.

Behind this growth lies the global spread of Korean popular culture — K-pop and K-dramas in particular. Experts note that K-dramas have served as effective promotional vehicles for kimchi and Korean food, a concrete example of how media influences the spread of food culture.^[13] But for a trend to sustain itself, something more than media exposure is needed. The main reasons Western consumers give for repeatedly purchasing kimchi are “the perception that it is healthy” and “its distinctive flavor.”

What is interesting is that most of the kimchi being exported is not South Korean in origin — it is Chinese. In Japan, for instance, the majority of imported kimchi is produced in China. This is because Chinese-made kimchi is highly price-competitive, thanks to lower labor and ingredient costs. Kimchi is a Korean food — but as demand has grown, production has expanded to multiple countries. This is the same logic by which sushi is Japanese food yet is made all over the world.

Two Thousand Years of Salt: What Has Changed, and What Remains

Between Yi Gyubo’s salt-preserved radishes and cabbage and the red napa cabbage kimchi we eat today, there are centuries of difference. The ingredients changed. The color changed. The taste changed. And yet an unbroken thread connects them: the technology of fermentation, the necessity of preserving vegetables through winter, the practice of making and sharing food together as a community.

Chili peppers came to the Korean Peninsula as a byproduct of war. Napa cabbage claimed its central role through trade. The fact that onggi creates an optimal environment for lactic acid bacteria was only proven by science thousands of years later. Kimchi has never been finished. It is still changing, even now.

So how old is kimchi? If you say 2,000 years, you are pointing to the history of salt-pickled radishes before chili peppers existed. If you say 200 years, you are talking about the age of the food you eat today. Both answers are correct. And in the gap between them, war and trade and climate and science have all quietly accumulated.