The History of Toilet Paper: From Ancient Hygiene to Modern Sanitation

Reach out in the bathroom right now and it’s there — the toilet paper roll, taken entirely for granted. It felt so indispensable that when it vanished from supermarket shelves in the early days of the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic, the world fell into panic. People lined up before dawn to stockpile rolls, and online sellers were charging dozens of dollars per roll.^[1] It was probably the first time any of us truly felt the value of a single roll.

But consider this: the toilet paper roll as we know it today has a history of barely 130 years. For thousands of years before that, humanity solved this problem in entirely different ways. Some civilizations used sponges, others used pottery shards, and others turned to leaves and moss from nature. And the origins of the soft paper we hold in our hands today trace back, remarkably, to a brief passage written by a Chinese scholar 1,400 years ago.

Before Toilet Paper: Ancient Civilizations and Their Methods

How humanity has handled personal hygiene after defecation was long a topic hidden in the shadows of history. But through advances in archaeology and historiography, we now know just how varied — and sometimes ingenious — the solutions of ancient civilizations truly were.

Ancient Greece: Pottery Shards and Stones

Ancient Greeks used small pottery fragments or pebbles called pessoi. The word “pessoi” means “pebbles” in Greek. Archaeological excavations of latrines from the Greco-Roman period have uncovered these pottery shards with their edges smoothed down.^[2][10] Users had worked the edges to minimize the risk of injury from sharp corners. Interestingly, according to the historian Plutarch, pessoi sometimes bore the names of political enemies inscribed on them — a physical expression of contempt.

Ancient Rome: The Shared Sponge Stick

Roman civilization boasted large public latrines known as foricae. These facilities featured rows of marble-seat toilets with no partitions — for Romans, defecation was a thoroughly social act, and it was entirely normal to discuss politics and business in the latrine.^[3]

For cleaning, Romans used the xylospongium or tersorium: a natural Mediterranean sponge affixed to the end of a wooden stick roughly 30 to 45 centimeters long.^[3] After use, it was rinsed in a basin of vinegar or salt water and returned for the next person. Fresco inscriptions actually found on the walls of Roman foricae read “use the xylospongium” (utaris xylosphongio).^[3]

However, even if the salt water and vinegar provided some disinfecting effect, a communally shared sponge was an inevitable breeding ground for bacteria. Modern epidemiologists believe these shared sponges likely contributed to the spread of infectious diseases such as typhoid fever.^[3]

Medieval Europe and Other Civilizations

Hygiene practices in medieval Europe were far simpler than those of Rome. In the countryside, straw, hay, wool, leaves, and moss were most commonly used. Along coastlines, seashells served the purpose, and in parts of northern Europe, moss or snow were employed.^[4] The wealthy used hemp cloth or woolen fabric, which could be washed and reused.

In China, records from around the 2nd century BC describe the use of chugi (厠籌) — cloth wrapped around the end of a bamboo stick. A 1992 excavation of a Han dynasty military site at Xuanquanzhi (懸泉置) in Gansu Province unearthed actual 2,000-year-old hygiene sticks.^[4]

Where It All Began: China and the World’s First Toilet Paper

The most important first milestone in the history of toilet paper lies in East Asia. Remarkably, it begins not with a record of toilet paper being made, but with a declaration that someone would refuse to use it.

Yan Zhitui’s Record: 589 AD

Yan Zhitui (顔之推, 531–591), a scholar who lived through the Northern Qi and Sui dynasties of China, wrote the following in his work Yanshi Jiaxun (顔氏家訓) around 589 AD:

“I dare not use paper on which the Five Classics or the names of sages are written for toilet purposes.”^[5]

This brief sentence carries enormous significance for historians. His refusal to use paper bearing the names of sages implies, conversely, that other paper was already being used in latrines. This is the earliest known recorded use of toilet paper in human history.^[5]

Of course, the paper of that era looked nothing like modern toilet paper rolls. It was simply paper produced using the papermaking techniques systematized by Cai Lun (蔡倫) in 105 AD — paper similar in character to today’s writing paper — repurposed for hygienic use.

14th-Century China: The World’s First Mass Production of Toilet Paper

Over the following centuries, toilet paper became increasingly common in China. Records indicate that in the early 14th century, the region of present-day Zhejiang Province alone produced a staggering 10 million bundles of toilet paper annually. Each bundle contained between 1,000 and 10,000 sheets.^[5]

By the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), imperial toilet paper had appeared. According to records from 1393, the imperial palace in Nanjing received 720,000 sheets of toilet paper each year. At roughly 60 by 90 centimeters, these sheets were quite large by modern standards. Furthermore, a separate supply of 15,000 sheets per year was produced exclusively for the imperial family of the Hongwu Emperor — and these special sheets were perfumed with incense.^[5]

While East Asia had already incorporated toilet paper into imperial life, the West was still using leaves and bundles of straw.

The Western Invention of Toilet Paper: 19th-Century Innovation

It took the West approximately 1,200 years longer than East Asia to develop toilet paper. Commercial toilet paper finally emerged amid the currents of the 19th-century Industrial Revolution.

Joseph Gayetty: The First Attempt in 1857

In 1857, New York inventor Joseph Gayetty launched America’s first commercial toilet paper. Sold under the name “Gayetty’s Medicated Paper for the Water-Closet,” the product came in 500-sheet flat packs infused with aloe and retailed for 50 cents.^[6] Every sheet bore Gayetty’s own name as a watermark.

Gayetty advertised his product as “the greatest necessity of the age.” Ironically, however, at a time when Americans routinely made do with newspapers and catalogue pages for free, Gayetty’s paid toilet paper never achieved significant commercial success.^[6]

Seth Wheeler: The Birth of the Roll in 1891

The man who perfected the toilet paper roll as we know it today was Seth Wheeler, from Albany, New York. On September 15, 1891, he registered perforated toilet paper on a roll with the United States Patent Office as Patent No. 459,516.^[6]

The patent drawings depict a toilet paper roll hanging on a wall-mounted holder. Interestingly, this drawing continues to be cited in a famous debate even in the 21st century — “Should toilet paper hang over or under?” The drawing makes Wheeler’s intention unambiguous: the paper hangs over (over, not under).^[6]

Scott Paper Company and Mass Market Adoption

The company that truly turned toilet paper into a mass-market product was Scott Paper Company. Brothers Irwin and Clarence Scott founded the company in Philadelphia in 1879 and began selling toilet paper rolls in earnest during the 1890s.^[11]

One fascinating detail: in the early days, the fact of using toilet paper was considered somewhat socially sensitive, so the Scott Company initially supplied its products under other companies’ names without affixing their own brand. Discussing bathroom hygiene was not a topic suitable for public conversation.

The 20th Century: The Industrialization and Normalization of Toilet Paper

Toilet paper’s establishment as a true household essential happened in the 20th century.

During the 1920s and 1930s, toilet paper manufacturing technology advanced rapidly. Improved perforation technology in 1928 produced sheets that tore apart consistently, and in 1942, St. Andrews Paper Mill in Britain developed the first 2-ply toilet paper.^[7] This product later evolved into the Andrex brand. Two-ply paper, which improved both softness and strength, became the industry standard going forward.

Following World War II, rising living standards and a heightened emphasis on hygiene established toilet paper as a household essential worldwide. Advertisements touting “softness,” “cleanliness,” and “freshness” helped make toilet paper a cornerstone of consumer culture. In 1957, Procter & Gamble acquired the Charmin brand, igniting full-scale marketing competition in the toilet paper market.^[7]

Different Choices Around the World: Bidet Culture and the Water Way

Interestingly, toilet paper has not been universally adopted worldwide. Hygiene practices after defecation vary enormously across cultures and regions, even today.

Water-based cultures: In the Islamic cultures of the Middle East, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, washing with water rather than paper has established itself as a religious and cultural tradition. Small water vessels called “lota” or hoses are used. In these regions, there is a strong view that wiping with paper alone is actually unhygienic.^[8]

Bidet culture: In Europe, the bidet — which originated in 17th-century France — complements or replaces toilet paper across southern Europe, parts of northern Europe, and South America. The earliest documentary record of the bidet appears in a French document from 1710.^[12] In France, Italy, Portugal, and Brazil, having a bidet in the bathroom is standard.^[8]

High-tech bidets in Japan and Korea: In East Asia, Japan is the leading pioneer of high-tech bidet culture. Since TOTO launched the Washlet in 1980, electronic bidets equipped with warm water washing, heated seats, and deodorizing functions have become commonplace in Japanese homes and public restrooms.^[8] South Korea, influenced by Japan, boasts one of the highest electronic bidet adoption rates in the world, and the advanced bidet has become a standard fixture in modern Korean homes.^[8]

Toilet paper strongholds: By contrast, in English-speaking countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia, bidet adoption rates remain low and toilet paper is overwhelmingly dominant. The COVID-19 pandemic sparked renewed interest in bidets in the United States, but they have yet to enter the mainstream.^[8]

The Modern Toilet Paper Industry and the Environmental Debate

Today, toilet paper sits at the center of a massive industry consuming more than 42 million metric tons annually worldwide. Yet the environmental impact of this modest everyday item is anything but modest.^[9]

An estimated 27,000 trees are felled every day to manufacture toilet paper. While toilet paper accounts for less than 10% of global paper production, it accounts for 15% of deforestation.^[9] Moreover, a significant portion of the raw materials used in toilet paper today is sourced from Canada’s boreal forests or Brazilian rainforests, tying this product directly to the destruction of old-growth forests that serve as critical carbon sinks.^[9]

In response to these environmental concerns, various alternatives have emerged in the toilet paper industry. Bamboo grows four to five times faster than ordinary trees and has gained attention as a sustainable raw material, while products made from bagasse (sugarcane byproduct) and recycled pulp are also gaining market share.^[9]

Conclusion

From the sponge sticks of a world without plumbing, through a Chinese scholar’s brief and principled confession, through a New York inventor’s packet of flat sheets, through an Albany businessman’s rolled patent — toilet paper is an object in which thousands of years of human civilization’s relationship with hygiene is compressed.

The sheet of paper you pull from the roll in the bathroom holds within it the restrained prose of a 6th-century Chinese scholar, the dogged experiments of 19th-century inventors, and the concerns of environmental advocates who, even now, are searching for a better way. Even the most private of human acts, it turns out, is woven into the long current of civilization.