The History of Toothpaste: From Ancient Powders to Modern Formulas

Around 5000 BCE, an Egyptian physician wrote a prescription mixing burnt ox hoof ash with crushed eggshells and pumice – a cleanser designed to keep teeth clean. What is remarkable is that the core principle of this mixture – physically scrubbing the tooth surface with fine particles to remove contaminants – still applies to the toothpaste we use today, 5,000 years later. What has changed is the precision of the ingredients, not the fundamental principle.

Dental Cleansers of the Ancient World

Humanity’s concern for dental hygiene is as old as recorded history itself. The oldest known dental cleansing recipe dates back to ancient Egypt around 5000 BCE. Egyptians mixed the ashes of burnt ox hooves, myrrh, crushed eggshells, and pumice into a powder for cleaning their teeth.^[1] They would rub this coarse mixture against their teeth using their fingers or twigs. By modern standards it sounds alarming, but it was mechanically effective at removing plaque from the tooth surface.

In 2003, a remarkable discovery was made at the Austrian National Library in Vienna: an Egyptian papyrus containing a surprisingly sophisticated toothpaste recipe. Believed to date to around the 4th century CE, the papyrus described a formula of one drachma of rock salt, one mina of dried iris petals, 20 grains of pepper, and dried mint leaves.^[2] Dentists who reviewed the recipe concluded that it would have produced a genuinely effective cleansing result, even by modern standards.

The ancient Greeks and Romans also paid considerable attention to dental hygiene. The Greeks used magnesium carbonate, powdered oyster shells, and pumice, while the Romans added burnt animal bones, charcoal powder, and tree bark to the mix.^[3] The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) noted in his encyclopedic work Naturalis Historia that the ash of burnt mouse heads could whiten teeth — whether or not this actually worked is unknown, but it reveals just how eager people of the era were about tooth whitening.^[3]

India and China developed their own independent oral hygiene traditions. Ayurveda, India’s ancient medical system, emphasized dental hygiene for thousands of years before the Common Era. Ayurvedic texts describe chewing neem twigs and fraying the end into a brush-like tool.^[4] Neem contains antibacterial compounds, and its efficacy is recognized by modern science. In China, dental cleansing powders blended from herbs, ginseng, salt, and spices were in use, with records of ginseng’s inclusion dating back to around 1600 BCE.^[4]

The Islamic World’s Miswak and Medieval Europe

Arab and Islamic civilization made a major contribution to oral hygiene, particularly through the development of the miswak (also known as siwak). The miswak is a natural toothbrush made by chewing the twigs or roots of the arak tree (Salvadora persica), and it is said that the Islamic Prophet Muhammad (570–632 CE) actively encouraged its use.^[5] In Islamic tradition, the miswak was more than a hygienic tool — it was a practice intertwined with religious duty.

Scientific research has confirmed that miswak naturally contains fluorides, silica, tannins, saponins, and antibacterial compounds, demonstrating genuine teeth-cleaning efficacy.^[5] The World Health Organization (WHO) has also recommended its use, and today millions of people in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia continue to use it as part of their daily routines.

Medieval Europe, by contrast, took a comparatively rough approach to dental care. Many Europeans simply wiped their teeth with cloth or used mixtures of salt and charcoal. Herbalists recommended sage, mint, and rosemary for cleansing the teeth, and some prescriptions included vinegar or wine.^[6] Barber-surgeons of the medieval period handled dental treatments, and their methods were primarily limited to extraction. The concept of oral hygiene had yet to be systematically developed.

The 18th and 19th Centuries: The Age of Tooth Powder

The dawn of modern dental hygiene arrived in the 18th century. Across Europe, a cleansing product called tooth powder grew popular during this period. By today’s standards, the ingredients in early tooth powders were downright dangerous. Sugar, brick dust, crushed pottery fragments, and even acidic substances were used — all of which abraded the tooth enamel and caused damage rather than preventing it.^[7]

By the late 18th century in Britain, more systematic tooth powder formulations began to appear. Various physicians, including dentist Joseph Priestley (a different person from the famous oxygen-discovering scientist of the same name), prescribed calcium carbonate-based tooth powders.^[7] Calcium carbonate remains one of the key ingredients in modern toothpaste.

In the early 19th century, tooth powder became increasingly commercialized. In 1824, American surgeon Dr. Peabody attempted to add soap to tooth powder^[7], after which various manufacturers began adding different flavorings and sweeteners, growing the market further. However, tooth powder of this era was still sold in wide-mouthed jars and boxes, and applied by rubbing with the fingers or cloth.

The First Commercial Toothpaste: Colgate and the Tube Revolution

The year 1873 was a decisive turning point in toothpaste history. Colgate & Company of the United States became the first to mass-produce and sell a scented toothpaste in jars.^[8] Led by Samuel Colgate, son of founder William Colgate, the company introduced a fragrant and easy-to-use toothpaste to the general public. That early Colgate product, however, was sold in ceramic jars — not tubes.

The true revolution came in the 1890s. Dr. Washington Sheffield, a dentist from New Haven, Connecticut, began selling his toothpaste in a collapsible lead tube in 1886.^[8] He is said to have drawn inspiration from the lead tubes that painters of his day used to store their pigments. His son Lucius Sheffield further developed the concept and obtained a patent in 1892.

Colgate adopted Sheffield’s tube format in 1896 and began selling toothpaste in tubes^[8] — a turning point that transformed the entire toothpaste market. Tube toothpaste was hygienic, convenient, and easy to portion, and it spread around the world almost instantly. By the early 20th century, the toothpaste tube had become a bathroom essential.

The formulation of toothpaste also improved rapidly during this period. Soap was removed from toothpaste and replaced by synthetic detergents such as sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS). In 1914, fluoride was first considered as a toothpaste ingredient, but concerns about mottling from excessive exposure meant it would take several more decades before it entered widespread use.^[9]

The Fluoride Revolution: An Invisible Shield Against Cavities

The most important scientific breakthrough in toothpaste history was the discovery of fluoride. In the early 20th century, a dentist in Colorado named Frederick McKay began observing a phenomenon where local residents’ teeth were developing brown stains — dubbed the “Colorado Brown Stain.”^[9] Along with this unsightly discoloration, he also noticed that the affected teeth were remarkably resistant to decay.

In 1931, research by McKay and H. V. Churchill and others established that the phenomenon was caused by fluoride in the drinking water.^[9] This discovery marked a critical turning point in public health history. Once it was confirmed that fluoride at appropriate concentrations prevented tooth decay, Grand Rapids, Michigan became the world’s first city to fluoridate its public water supply in 1945.^[9]

In parallel, toothpaste manufacturers began developing fluoride-added toothpastes. In 1955, Procter & Gamble’s Crest was launched in the American market as the world’s first fluoride-containing toothpaste.^[10] Crest was also the first toothpaste to receive official endorsement from the American Dental Association (ADA) — a marketing advantage that proved enormous. Within just a few years of its launch, Crest had surpassed Colgate to become the top-selling toothpaste in the United States.

Here is how fluoride toothpaste works: fluoride ions bind to hydroxyapatite in the tooth enamel to form fluorapatite, which is far more resistant to acid than hydroxyapatite. This means the enamel is better protected against the acids produced when oral bacteria break down sugars.^[10] Since the introduction of fluoride toothpaste, cavity rates in developed countries have dropped significantly — making it one of the most successful examples of preventive medicine in the history of public health.

The Diversification of Modern Toothpaste

From the 1970s onward, the toothpaste market began segmenting rapidly. Products claiming a wide variety of functions beyond basic tooth-cleaning flooded the shelves.

Whitening toothpastes gained popularity in the 1980s and 1990s. Early whitening toothpastes relied primarily on enhanced abrasives to physically remove surface stains. Later, chemical whitening agents such as hydrogen peroxide and carbamide peroxide were introduced, and today’s whitening toothpastes feature sophisticated formulas that brighten teeth without damaging enamel.^[11]

Sensitivity toothpastes were developed for people whose exposed dentin causes pain when consuming cold water or sweet foods. Ingredients such as potassium nitrate or strontium chloride block nerve signal transmission or occlude the dentinal tubules, alleviating sensitivity.^[11] Sensodyne, launched in 1961, was the pioneer in this category — originally based on strontium chloride, the brand added a potassium nitrate formula in 1980.

Natural and organic toothpastes grew rapidly from the 2000s onward as consumer concerns about synthetic ingredients increased. These products, featuring charcoal, clay, coconut oil, aloe vera, and other nature-derived ingredients, appealed strongly to health-conscious consumers.^[12] Some products in this category — such as activated charcoal toothpastes — have, however, raised concerns about excessive abrasion of tooth enamel.

The most recent innovation is the rise of solid toothpaste. Available in various forms — tabs, beads, and powders — solid toothpastes are marketed as eco-friendly alternatives to conventional tubes because they require no plastic packaging.^[12] As global concern over plastic waste intensifies, this segment is growing at a rapid pace.

Humanity’s Wisdom in a Tube

Between the abrasive powder written on an Egyptian physician’s prescription in 5000 BCE and today’s precisely formulated fluoride toothpaste lies a span of 7,000 years. Yet one consistent thread runs through it all – humanity has never once stopped trying to keep its teeth clean. Egypt’s powders, the Islamic world’s miswak, 18th-century Europe’s tooth powders, 19th-century America’s tube, and the 20th century’s fluoride were all each era’s best answer to the same question.

The global toothpaste market is now worth tens of billions of dollars, with new products incorporating fresh ingredients and technologies launched every year. With new forms like solid toothpaste now entering the picture, it seems humanity’s answer to that ancient question – how can we clean our teeth better? – remains a work in progress.